Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).

With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).

God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).

A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).

While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.

The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).

The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).

God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

A Levite, the son of Izhar, of the family of Kohath (Exod. 6:21; Num. 16:1). Numbers 16 tells how Korah, along with the Reubenites Dathan, Abiram, and On, led a rebellion of 250 Israelite chiefs against Moses and Aaron. They challenged the validity of the Aaronic priesthood and claimed that the entire congregation was holy and fit to perform the priestly functions. They also questioned the authority of Moses over all the tribes because he was not from the tribe of Reuben, the firstborn of Israel.

Moses was then directed by Yahweh to have the congregation move away from the dwellings of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. Moses went to Dathan and Abiram, and they came out and stood at the entrance of their tents along with their households. Then the ground opened up and swallowed Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and all that belonged to them (their households and their goods). The sons of Korah, however, did not die (see Num. 26:11). Fire came down from Yahweh and consumed the 250 men with the censers. The censers were taken by Eleazar, the son of Aaron, and hammered into plates to cover the altar as a sign to the Israelites that only the descendants of Aaron should draw near to burn incense before Yahweh. See also Korahites.

Mark’s Gospel is a fast-paced, action-packed narrative that portrays Jesus as the mighty Messiah and Son of God, who suffers and dies as the servant of the Lord—a ransom price for sins. Mark’s purpose is to provide an authoritative account of the “good news” about Jesus Christ and to encourage believers to follow Jesus’ example by remaining faithful to their calling through persecution and even martyrdom. A theme verse is Mark 10:45: “For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.”

Mark’s narrative may be divided into two main parts. The first half of the story demonstrates that Jesus is the mighty Messiah and Son of God (1:18:26); the second half reveals that the Messiah’s role is to suffer and die as a sacrifice for sins (8:27–16:8).

Unlike Matthew and Luke, Mark does not begin with stories of Jesus’ birth but instead moves directly to his public ministry. As in the other Gospels, John the Baptist is the “messenger” who prepares the way for the Messiah (cf. Isa. 40:3; Mal. 3:1). John preaches a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins and announces the “more powerful” one, the Messiah, who will come after him (1:7). When Jesus is baptized by John, the Spirit descends on him, empowering him for ministry. After his temptation (or testing) by Satan in the desert, Jesus returns to Galilee and launches his ministry, proclaiming the “good news” (gospel) that “the time has come.... The kingdom of God has come near” (1:15).

During his Galilean ministry, Jesus demonstrates extraordinary authority in teaching, healing, and exorcism. He calls fishermen from their occupation, and they drop everything and follow him (1:16–20). He claims authority to forgive sins (2:10) and authority over the Sabbath command (2:28). He reveals power over natural forces, calming the sea (4:35–41), walking on water (6:45–52), and feeding huge crowds with a few loaves and fishes (6:30–44; 8:1–13). The people stand “amazed” and “astonished” (a major theme in Mark) at Jesus’ teaching and miracles, and his popularity soars.

Jesus’ authority and acclaim provoke opposition from the religious leaders of Israel, who are jealous of his influence. The scribes and Pharisees accuse him of claiming the prerogative of God (2:7), associating with undesirable sinners (2:16), breaking the Sabbath (2:24), and casting out demons by Satan’s powers (3:22). They conspire to kill him (3:6).

A sense of mystery and awe surrounds Jesus’ identity. When he calms the sea, the disciples wonder, “Who is this?” (4:41), and King Herod wonders if this might be John the Baptist risen from the dead (6:16). Adding to this sense of mystery is what has come to be called the “messianic secret.” Jesus silences demons who identify him as the Messiah and orders those he heals not to tell anyone what has happened. This secrecy is not, as some have claimed, a literary device invented by Mark to explain Jesus’ unmessianic life; rather, it is Jesus’ attempt to calm inappropriate messianic expectations and to define his messianic mission on his own terms.

The critical turning point in the narrative comes in 8:27–33, when Peter, as representative of the disciples, declares that Jesus is the Messiah. The authority that Jesus has demonstrated up to this point confirms that he is God’s agent of salvation. Yet Jesus startles the disciples by announcing that his messianic task is to go to Jerusalem to suffer and die. Peter rebukes him, but Jesus responds, “Get behind me, Satan! ... You do not have in mind the concerns of God, but merely human concerns” (8:33). Jesus will accomplish salvation not by crushing the Roman occupiers, but by offering his life as a sacrifice for sins.

In the second half of the Gospel, Jesus journeys to Jerusalem, three times predicting that he will be arrested and killed (8:31–32; 9:31; 10:33–34). The disciples repeatedly demonstrate pride, ignorance, and spiritual dullness (8:33; 9:32–34; 10:35–41), and Jesus teaches them that whoever wants to be first must become last (9:35); that to lead, one must serve (10:45); and that to be Jesus’ disciple requires taking up one’s cross and following him (8:34).

When he comes to Jerusalem, Jesus symbolically judges the nation by clearing the temple of merchants (11:15–17) and by cursing a fig tree (representing Israel), which subsequently withers (11:12–14, 20–21). He engages in controversies with the religious leaders (chaps. 11–12) and teaches the disciples that Jerusalem and the temple will be destroyed (chap. 13). Judas Iscariot, one of Jesus’ own disciples, betrays him. Jesus is arrested and brought to trial before the Jewish Sanhedrin, which finds him guilty of blasphemy. That council turns Jesus over to the Roman governor Pilate, who accedes to his crucifixion (chaps. 14–15).

The crucifixion scene in Mark is a dark and lonely one. Jesus is deserted by his followers, unjustly condemned, beaten by the soldiers, and mocked by all. Apparently deserted even by God, Jesus cries out from the cross, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (15:34). Yet the reader knows by this point in the story that Jesus’ death is not the tragedy that it seems. This is God’s means of accomplishing salvation. Upon Jesus’ death, the curtain of the temple is torn, opening a new way into God’s presence. The Roman centurion at the cross cries out, “Surely this man was the Son of God!” (15:39). The death of the Messiah is not a defeat; it is an atoning sacrifice for sins. Three days later Jesus rises from the dead, just as he has predicted. When Jesus’ women followers come to the tomb, the angel announces, “He has risen! He is not here” (16:6). Jesus the Messiah has turned tragedy into victory and has defeated sin, Satan, and death.

Righteousness is an important theme in both Testaments of the Bible. The concept includes faithfulness, justice, uprightness, correctness, loyalty, blamelessness, purity, salvation, and innocence. Because the theme is related to justification, it has important implications for the doctrine of salvation.

Being careful to avoid imposing Western philosophical categories onto OT texts, we may say that the core idea of righteousness is conformity to God’s person and will in moral uprightness, justness, justice, integrity, and faithfulness. Behind the many and varied uses of righteousness language in the OT stands the presupposition that God himself is righteous in the ultimate sense (e.g., Ezra 9:15; Isa. 45:21; Zeph. 3:5). Righteousness is the expression of his holiness in relationship to others (Isa. 5:16), and all other nuances of righteousness in the biblical texts are derived from this.

Related to humans, righteousness is often found as the opposite of wickedness. Righteousness often occurs in evaluative contexts, where it relates to proper conduct with respect to God, the order of the world as he created it, the covenant, or law (e.g., Deut. 6:25). God reigns in righteousness and justice (e.g., Ps. 97:2), and humans should align their conduct with this righteous reign. Righteousness can be expressed as personal integrity with phrases such as “my righteousness” (2Sam. 22:21, 25; Ps. 7:8) and “their righteousness” (1Sam. 26:23). Unrighteousness is found in poetic parallel to injustice (e.g., Jer. 22:13); the unjust are parallel with the wicked (Ps. 82:2).

Righteousness language is more rare in the Gospels than one might expect in light of OT and Jewish intertestamental usage. These references fit with the Jewish setting: righteousness is required of God’s people, and unrighteousness is to be avoided. Righteousness is proper conduct with respect to God or Torah (Matt. 21:32) in contrast to wickedness (Matt. 13:49). Righteousness could be conceived as one’s own (e.g., Luke 18:9) and has its reward (Matt. 10:41). While the specific terms related to righteousness are infrequent in the Gospels, the broader concept of conformity to God’s will is widely apparent in calls for repentance, personal moral uprightness, mercy, and concern for the marginalized. The NT Epistles continue these general strands of the concept. Righteousness is related to personal conduct (1Thess. 2:10; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim. 2:22; 1Pet. 2:24) and is contrasted with wickedness (2Cor. 6:14); it is a matter of doing, not knowing (Rom. 2:13). An example of righteousness in doing is the kindness shown by the prostitute Rahab, who hid the Israelite spies (James 2:25).

The NT does signal some new dimensions related to righteousness. In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 57), Jesus extends the requirements of righteousness to conformity to his own teaching and directives, a shocking display of authority. In his mission to call sinners rather than the “righteous” (e.g., Mark 2:17), Jesus implicitly questions the righteousness of the “righteous.” In similar manner, personal righteousness in terms of a righteousness of one’s own is negative in the NT (Rom. 10:3; Phil. 3:6; cf. Luke 18:9).

The NT continues the OT theme of righteousness as it relates to God himself. God is righteous (John 17:25; Rom. 3:5; 9:14; Heb. 6:10; cf. Matt. 6:33). His judgments are righteous (Rom. 2:5), and his commands and laws are righteous (Rom. 7:12; 8:4). God is a righteous judge (2Tim. 4:8). His saving activity is righteous; he does not compromise his own justice in justifying the ungodly (Rom. 3:24–26). The righteousness of God is contrasted with human unrighteousness and wickedness (Rom. 3:5; James 1:20). Since God reigns over creation in righteousness, human conduct should conform to that standard (e.g., Rom. 14:17). Jesus is also noted as righteous (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 1Pet. 3:18; 1John 2:1, 29). He fulfilled righteousness in the absolute sense of demonstrating complete conformity to the nature and will of God (e.g., 1Pet. 3:18). He also fulfilled God’s righteousness in the sense of his saving activity toward humans (e.g., 2Pet. 1:1).

The Hebrew word tarshish refers to a precious stone (NIV: “topaz”; Exod. 28:20; Ezek. 1:16). The name of the stone probably comes from its place of origin. “Tarshish” is also used as a name, and is frequently mentioned in the OT. Solomon engaged in trade with Tar-shish (1Kings 10:22 NRSV, NASB; 2Chron. 9:21 NRSV, NASB), and it is described as a source of precious metals such as gold and silver (Jer. 10:9; Ezek. 27:12). Its location is unknown, but it is associated with islands (Ps. 72:10 NRSV, NASB) and with Jonah’s flight by ship from Joppa on the Mediterranean (Jon. 1:3). Both Tartessus in southwest Spain and the island of Sardinia have been suggested as possible sites.

The phrase “ships of Tarshish” (Ps. 48:7; Isa. 23:1) may refer to a fleet originating from Tarshish or more generally to a type of seaworthy merchant vessel. It is thus sometimes translated by the NIV as “trading ships” (1Kings 10:22; 22:48).

In the Bible, woman is first encountered along with man in Gen. 1:2628. God created “man” in the plural, male and female, and commanded them to reproduce and to fill the earth and subdue it. Being created male and female is set in parallel to being created in the image of God. In the ancient Near East, perhaps the king would be thought of as the image of God. But in Genesis, not only is the first man the image of God, but the first woman participates in the image as well. This is all but unthinkable in the ancient world, and it suggests an unparalleled dignity and worth in womankind.

Genesis records that the human race fell through the instrumentality of a man, a woman, and the serpent. The serpent approached the woman, not the man. The woman was convinced by the serpent and ate the forbidden fruit. She gave some to her husband, who also ate it without saying a word. Thus, the woman can be blamed in part for the fall of the race. Adam was condemned because he “listened to [his] wife” (Gen. 3:17). Her judgment, for heeding the serpent, was pain in childbirth and a desire for her husband, who would rule over her (Gen. 3:16). The exact parameters of this judgment are unclear, but it appears that her desire will be for his position of leadership and will be perpetually frustrated.

Often in the Bible, women are motivated by their desire to have children. Rachel demanded of Jacob, “Give me children, or I’ll die!” (Gen. 30:1). She saw herself in competition with her sister, Leah, in this respect (30:8). The “fruit of the womb” is a reward, and like arrows, the blessed man’s quiver is full of them (Ps. 127:1–5). Note also the beatitude of Ps. 128:3: “Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your children will be like olive shoots around your table.”

In Genesis, the reproductive capability of slave girls is at the disposal of their owners. Thus, Rachel and Leah’s maidservants became surrogate mothers for a number of their sons (Gen. 30:3–10). Sarah also became frustrated at her inability to conceive, so she gave Hagar to Abraham. The result was great familial turmoil, finally resulting in the banishment of both Hagar and Ishmael, whom she bore to Abraham.

In the beginning, God joined one man and one woman together as husband and wife. But soon this idea was corrupted, and Lamech, a man from Cain’s lineage, is credited with the first polygamous marriage (Gen. 4:19). Although the patriarchs (such as Jacob) did have more than one wife, the household discontent and strife are what is highlighted in those stories, such as with Hagar. In the NT, an elder is to be, literally, a “one-woman man” (1Tim. 3:2; ESV, KJV: “the husband of one wife”), meaning monogamous.

The Torah contains significant legislation regarding women. The daughters of Zelophehad argued that their father died without sons, so in Canaan they were disinherited. God agreed and decreed that in Israel daughters would inherit land in the absence of sons. Only if there were no children at all would the land pass to other kin (Num. 27:1–11).

When a man made a vow, he must fulfill it, but a young woman’s vow was subject to her father. If he remained silent, the vow stood, but if he expressed disapproval, then she was freed from it. If she was married, her husband governed her vows, but if she was divorced, then there was no responsible male over her, and her vow was treated as a man’s (Num. 30:1–16).

Sexual intercourse was also regulated in the law of Moses, insofar as the act rendered both parties ritually impure (Lev. 15:18). Both must bathe and were unclean until evening. A woman’s menstrual discharge also made her unclean for a week. Everything she sat or lay upon was unclean, as was anyone who touched these things. She must wash and offer sacrifice to become clean again (15:18–31).

If a man discovered on his wedding night that his bride was not a virgin, he could accuse her publicly. If her parents provided evidence that she had in fact been a virgin, then the man was severely punished for lying and not allowed to divorce her (otherwise, it was simply a matter of writing a letter to divorce her [Deut. 24:1]). If her virginity could not be proved, she was to be put to death by stoning (Deut. 22:13–21).

In the case of a rape of a betrothed virgin, if it occurred in the city, both the rapist and the victim were stoned, since apparently she had failed to cry out for help and thus, the law assumed, consented to sexual intercourse. If she was raped in the countryside, only the man was killed. But if he raped a woman who was not spoken for, his punishment was that he must marry her without possibility of divorce (Deut. 22:23–29).

Numbers 5:11–31 treats cases where a husband was suspicious that his wife had been unfaithful—that is, a matter of covenantal jealousy. The unprovable was left to God to punish.

In the Bible, women sometimes are afforded dignity beyond what is expected in an ancient Near Eastern provenance. Hagar is the only woman in all ancient Near Eastern literature who gave a name to a deity (Gen. 16:13). In Judg. 4:4, Deborah “judged” Israel (despite the NIV’s “leading,” the underlying Hebrew verb indicates “judging,” as in the NRSV). Even as judge, however, she did not lead the army against the enemy general Sisera; Barak did so. But Barak was unwilling to undertake this mission unless Deborah went with him (4:8). Thus, God ensured that the prestige of killing Sisera went to a woman, Jael (4:9, 21). Another prominent woman was Huldah, to whom the priests turned for guidance when the law was rediscovered (2Kings 22:14).

Many biblical stories feature heroines. Mighty Pharaoh was undermined by two midwives in his attempt to destroy Israel (Exod. 1:15–21). Ruth the Moabite woman gave her name to the book that recounts her trek from Moab to Israel, including her famous oath of loyalty (Ruth 1:16–17). Esther too was a courageous woman whose book bears her name. Heroines are especially prominent in the Gospels, and the women there have the distinction of being the first to witness the risen Lord. Luke’s birth narrative is largely organized around Mary. Priscilla (with her husband) taught and helped to shape the early church (Acts 18:26). Paul lists many women in Rom. 16, calling them “deaconess,” “fellow worker,” and possibly even “apostle.”

Scripture also at times portrays various women as being temptations to men. Eve handed the fruit to Adam (Gen. 3:6). In the wilderness Israel worshiped Moabite gods in conjunction with sexual activity (Num. 25:1–9). Later, Israelites intermarried with Canaanite women, directly leading to worship of their idols (Judg. 3:6). Bathsheba was a temptation to David, and this began a series of events that marred his career as a man after God’s own heart. Solomon loved many foreign women, who turned him to worship their gods. After the exile, the Israelites were admonished by Nehemiah to put away their foreign wives lest history repeat itself (Neh. 13:26).

Women and marriage are used in the Bible as images for spiritual things. Paul writes that marital love mirrors the church’s relationship with Christ (Eph. 5:32–33). A man should love his wife as Christ loved the church. Revelation portrays the climax to human history in the figure of two women: the bride of Christ, adorned with righteous deeds for her husband (19:7–8), and the whor* Babylon, drunk on the blood of the saints (17:5–6). The consummation of the age is when one is judged and the other enters her eternal marital bliss.

The book of Proverbs also separates humankind into two groups, symbolized by two women. Along the path of life, the youth hears the voices of Woman Folly (9:13–18) and of Woman Wisdom (1:20–33) calling out to him. Folly is incarnated in the flesh-and-blood temptation of the immoral woman (7:6–27), whereas Woman Wisdom has her counterpart at the end of the book in the detailed description of the woman of virtue (31:10–31). There, the woman who fears God is set as a prize far above earthly wealth—the highest blessing of the wise.

Paul uses two women from sacred history to help explain his gospel of law versus grace. Hagar the slave woman represents the Mosaic covenant given at Sinai, and the earthly Jerusalem—that is, a mind-set of slavery that futilely attempts to earn God’s favor by works of the law. Sarah was the free woman, and her son was the promised son, who represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the new covenant, and freedom from the requirements of the law (Gal. 4:21–31). Again, two women symbolize two paths and two peoples—one being slaves, the other being God’s free people.

Jerusalem was held by the Jebusites, who mocked David’s forces. But David captured the city, which from then on bore the title “City of David,” also called “fortress of Zion” (2Sam. 5:59). David made it his capital. Later, Solomon built the temple there, making it also the religious center of the nation (1Kings 8:1–14). “Zion” (of uncertain meaning) sometimes is a designation for the city of Jerusalem. It is said to have towers, ramparts, and citadels (Ps. 48:12–13), and Jeremiah prophesied its razing (Jer. 26:18). But it is also a designation for the mountain on which the city is built (Isa. 24:23; Zech. 8:3).

Since the God of Israel has a special relationship with Israel and its king, God’s purposes for the world often are couched in terms of Mount Zion. God set his king on Mount Zion (Ps. 2:6). The psalmist praises God, who has established Zion “forever” (Ps. 48:1–8). It is there that God is said to reign (Isa. 24:23). Nevertheless, the king on David’s throne and the inhabitants of Zion can be censured by God and found wanting (Amos 6:1). In fact, it is precisely because God identifies with the city that the people bear particular responsibility to represent his character. Thus, the time came when Zion was indeed “plowed like a field” (Mic. 3:12). Lamentations mourns Zion’s destruction numerous times. After God’s people spent a period of time in exile, God brought them back to Zion (Ps. 126). Although the ancient city was again destroyed by the Romans, Zion has become in the NT a symbol of the present heavenly dwelling place of God, entered into by faith (Heb. 12:22), and the future destiny of the saints (Rev. 14:1).

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

Mountains, both literally and metaphorically, play a highlysignificant role in biblical history, religion, and theology. Peopleare shaped by the geography of the location in which they live, andthis was no less the case with the Israelites. Mountains, aspermanent and immovable, form natural barriers and borders (Josh.15), afford protection from invaders (Judg. 6:2; Ps. 125:2), serve asplaces of refuge (Gen. 14:10; 19:17; 1Sam. 14:22), and providebases from which to launch attacks (Judg. 4:14; 9:36). Often in theBible, mountain imagery is used to describe God as eternal and astrong refuge (Pss. 36:6; 90:2; 121:1–2; 125:2).

Butmountains are also places of mystery. In the religious world of theancient Near East, gods were thought to either live or make theirpresence known on mountains—portals, as it were, between heavenand earth. The garden of Eden is regarded by Ezekiel as having beenlocated on “the holy mount of God” (Ezek. 28:13–14).God mysteriously reveals himself in a flame of fire to Moses at MountHoreb (Exod. 3), and then later from that same mountain God gives thelaw amid thunder, fire, and smoke; the people are not allowed toapproach the mountain lest they die (Exod. 19). Moses has anothertheophany on the same mountain (Exod. 33:17–34:8), and Elijahhas a very Moses-like encounter there with God as well (1Kings19).

Becauseof this association between gods and mountains, it was the norm tobuild temples for deities on mountaintops. Thus, the temple inJerusalem is built on Mount Zion, which is also the place whereAbraham had been ready to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:2; 2Chron.3:1). Thus, this mountain is the “mountain of the Lord”(Gen. 22:14), the mountain of God’s “inheritance”(Exod. 15:17), his “holy mountain” (Ps. 48:1). Even theplans for the tabernacle and temples are given on mountaintops (Exod.25:40; 26:30; 27:8; 2Sam. 24:18–25; 1Chron.21:18–22:1; 28:11–12; Ezek. 40:1–2; Rev. 21:10). Itshould not escape notice that Israel’s legal tradition andliturgical tradition are both associated with mountains, Sinai andZion (Jerusalem).

Itis no wonder, then, that mountains play such a significant role inthe NT and the life of Christ. On top of a high mountain, the deviltempts Jesus to worship him (Matt. 4:8–10). Jesus proclaims thelaw of the kingdom from a mountain (5:1). On a mountain, Jesuschooses to reveal to his disciples his true glory in thetransfiguration (17:1). After his resurrection, Jesus has hisdisciples meet him at a mountain, from which he makes his declarationof authority and gives the Great Commission (28:16–20). ButJesus and the NT authors also “relocate” the place wherepeople meet with God from any particular location, mountain orotherwise, to the human spirit and to the church (John 4:21–24;Heb. 12:22–23).

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

The Hebrew word tarshishrefers to a precious stone (NIV: “topaz”; Exod. 28:20;Ezek. 1:16). The name of the stone probably comes from its place oforigin (see #4, below). “Tarshish” is also used as aname. (1)Ason of Javan, grandson of Japheth, and great-grandson of Noah (Gen.10:4; 1Chron. 1:7). (2)Ason of Bilhan, grandson of Jediael, and great-grandson of Benjamin(1Chron. 7:10). (3)Oneof the seven princes of Persia and Media who had access to thepresence of King Ahasuerus and advised him to put away Queen Vashtibecause of her refusal to obey the king’s command to appearbefore the banquet (Esther 1:14).

(4)Aplace frequently mentioned in the OT. Solomon engaged in trade withTarshish (1Kings 10:22 NRSV, NASB; 2Chron. 9:21 NRSV,NASB), and it is described as a source of precious metals such asgold and silver (Jer. 10:9; Ezek. 27:12). Its location is unknown,but it is associated with islands (Ps. 72:10 NRSV, NASB) and withJonah’s flight by ship from Joppa on the Mediterranean (Jon.1:3). Both Tartessus in southwest Spain and the island of Sardiniahave been suggested as possible sites.

Thephrase “ships of Tarshish” (Ps. 48:7; Isa. 23:1) mayrefer to a fleet originating from Tar-shish or more generally to atype of seaworthy merchant vessel. It is thus sometimes translated bythe NIV as “trading ships” (1Kings 10:22; 22:48).

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

Jerusalem was held by the Jebusites, who mocked David’sforces. But David captured the city, which from then on bore thetitle “City of David,” also called “fortress ofZion” (2Sam. 5:5–9). David made it his capital.Later, Solomon built the temple there, making it also the religiouscenter of the nation (1Kings 8:1–14). “Zion”(of uncertain meaning) sometimes is a designation for the city ofJerusalem. It is said to have towers, ramparts, and citadels (Ps.48:12–13), and Jeremiah prophesied its razing (Jer. 26:18). Butit is also a designation for the mountain on which the city is built(Isa. 24:23; Zech. 8:3).

Sincethe God of Israel has a special relationship with Israel and itsking, God’s purposes for the world often are couched in termsof Mount Zion. God set his king on Mount Zion (Ps. 2:6). The psalmistpraises God, who has established Zion “forever” (Ps.48:1–8). It is there that God is said to reign (Isa. 24:23).Nevertheless, the king on David’s throne and the inhabitants ofZion can be censured by God and found wanting (Amos 6:1). In fact, itis precisely because God identifies with the city that the peoplebear particular responsibility to represent his character. Thus, thetime came when Zion was indeed “plowed like a field”(Mic. 3:12). Lamentations mourns Zion’s destruction numeroustimes. After God’s people spent a period of time in exile, Godbrought them back to Zion (Ps. 126). Although the ancient city wasagain destroyed by the Romans, Zion has become in the NT a symbol ofthe present heavenly dwelling place of God, entered into by faith(Heb. 12:22), and the future destiny of the saints (Rev. 14:1).

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

This fortified harbor town, near Ezion Geber at the northernextremity of the Gulf of Aqabah (modern Aqabah), was a way station onthe important trade routes to southern Arabia, Africa, and India. Itis often identified with El Paran in Gen. 14:6.

Dueto its importance for the profitable trade with southern Arabia andbeyond, control over Elath was a prized object for Israel, Edom, andother rival powers. King Solomon, for instance, built Ezion Geberclose to Elath and dispatched the lucrative “ships of Tarshish”from there with the help of Phoenician sailors (1Kings 9:26–28;cf. Ps. 48:7). It is possible that the intention of Shishak’scampaign in the Negev was to cut off these trade activities, sincethe Egyptians were the only competitors to Israel’s shipping onthe Gulf of Aqabah. Later Judean kings, such as Jehoshaphat andUzziah, rebuilt the Red Sea port to resume trade with southernArabia, although with much less success (2Chron. 20:36; 26:2).Elath was handed over to the Edomites during the Syro-Ephramite war.

This fortified harbor town, near Ezion Geber at the northernextremity of the Gulf of Aqabah (modern Aqabah), was a way station onthe important trade routes to southern Arabia, Africa, and India. Itis often identified with El Paran in Gen. 14:6.

Dueto its importance for the profitable trade with southern Arabia andbeyond, control over Elath was a prized object for Israel, Edom, andother rival powers. King Solomon, for instance, built Ezion Geberclose to Elath and dispatched the lucrative “ships of Tarshish”from there with the help of Phoenician sailors (1Kings 9:26–28;cf. Ps. 48:7). It is possible that the intention of Shishak’scampaign in the Negev was to cut off these trade activities, sincethe Egyptians were the only competitors to Israel’s shipping onthe Gulf of Aqabah. Later Judean kings, such as Jehoshaphat andUzziah, rebuilt the Red Sea port to resume trade with southernArabia, although with much less success (2Chron. 20:36; 26:2).Elath was handed over to the Edomites during the Syro-Ephramite war.

The central city and capital of ancient Israel. The originalmeaning of the name probably is “founded by [the Canaanite god]Salem.” The Amarna letters refer to a Beth-Shalem, and itsfirst reference in the Bible is Salem (Gen. 14:18). Throughout itshistory, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus,Mount Moriah, and the City of David.

Thename “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT,particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’sdealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewedcollectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and hissovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’sjudgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:1–15;26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents thehope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8;60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag.2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NTauthors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms.Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal.4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of thenew covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24).In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the futurekingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).

Jerusalemis located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sealevel. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expandedand contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are twomajor ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the TyropoeonValley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and northof this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later thetemple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, sincethe only water source is the Gihon Spring, located in the KidronValley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they wereused for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east isthe Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by theKidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central RidgeRoute, separated by the Hinnom Valley.

EarlyHistory through the United Monarchy

Theearliest occupation was near the Gihon Spring, where Chalcolithicpottery (c. 3500 BC) and structures dating to the Early Bronze Age(c. 3000–2800 BC) were found. The Bronze Age city is mentionedin the Ebla tablets, Execration texts, and the Amarna letters.Melchizedek, the king of Salem, received gifts from Abraham andblessed him (Gen. 14). Abraham was commanded to offer Isaac as asacrifice on one of the mountains of Mount Moriah (Gen. 22:2), thelocation where Solomon later built the temple (2Chron. 3:1).The Jebusite city of the Bronze Age extended over the lower part ofthe Eastern Hill for about twelve acres, with a population of aboutone thousand.

AfterJoshua made a treaty with the Gibeonites, the king of Jerusalem,Adoni-Zedek, formed a coalition of five kings to attack Gibeon.Joshua defeated this coalition and killed the kings (Josh. 10). TheCanaanite inhabitants of Jerusalem are referred to as Amorites (Josh.10:5) and as Jebusites (Judg. 1:21; 1Chron. 11:4).

WhenDavid became king over both Israel and Judah, he made Jerusalem thepolitical, spiritual, and administrative center of his kingdom.Jerusalem became synonymous with David and was called the “Cityof David.” Transferring the ark to Jerusalem made it the newreligious center for the Israelites. David conquered the Jebusitestronghold through the tsinnor, possibly a water tunnel (2Sam.5:6–8; 1Chron. 11:4–7). He took up residence in thecity and began an extensive building program, but his vision ofJerusalem as the religious center was not fully realized until hisson Solomon became king and built the temple.

Solomongreatly expanded the city by building fortifications, the temple, andthe royal palace (1Kings 7–9). This was the first initialexpansion of the city as Solomon extended the city northward alongthe Eastern Hill, up the Ophel to the site of the present-day TempleMount. This expanded the city to about thirty-two acres, with apopulation of around five thousand. During the united monarchy,Jerusalem became the center of Israelite administration and religion.All Israelites were to come to Jerusalem three times a year forreligious festivals. Solomonic Jerusalem became the foundation forthe imagery bestowed on the city by the psalms (e.g., Pss. 46; 48;76; 84; 87; 122; 125; 132). Although major excavations were carriedout in the 1980s in the City of David, little is knownarchaeologically about the city of that period.

Fromthe Divided Monarchy to the Exile

Duringthe divided monarchy, Jerusalem was attacked by foreign forces.Jerusalem was attacked by Shishak of Egypt at the end of the tenthcentury BC (1Kings 14:25–26), by Syria and northernIsrael during the ninth century BC (2Kings 12:17; 15:37), andby Sennacherib of Assyria during the seventh century BC (2Kings18:13). Several Judean kings undertook building projects. Uzziahfortified Jerusalem by adding towers to the city walls (2Chron.26:9), and Jotham built the upper gate of the temple (2Chron.27:3).

Hezekiahgreatly expanded Jerusalem. The city doubled in size during his reignas it extended to the Western Hill (Upper City). The city thenencompassed about 125 acres, with a population of about twenty-fivethousand. It had expanded due to the influx of immigrants from thenorth when the capital of Samaria fell to the Assyrians. Hezekiahreinforced the Millo, built and rebuilt walls, and erected towers ashe extended the walls to encompass the Western Hill. In preparationfor the siege by Sennacherib, he constructed an underground watersystem to bring water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloaminside the city (2Kings 20:20; 2Chron. 32:2–4, 30;Isa. 22:11). Manasseh refortified Jerusalem with the construction ofa new outer wall (2Chron. 33:14). Jerusalem was invaded whenJehoiakim rebelled and was finally destroyed by Babylon in 586 BC.Prophets during the divided monarchy spoke of the destruction ofJerusalem, but also of its exaltation in later times (e.g., Isa.2:2–4; 24:23; Jer. 7:14; Mic. 3:12).

Archaeologicalexcavations have revealed much about Jerusalem during the time of thelater Judean kings. Several walls, towers, and fortificationsattributed to Hezekiah have been excavated in the Jewish Quarter.Hezekiah’s tunnel and the Siloam Inscription have beendiscovered, highlighting the preparations made by Hezekiah for theAssyrian siege. Several quarries and tombs have been found on theslopes of the Mount of Olives and the western slope (Ketef Hinnom) ofthe Hinnom Valley. In one of the Ketef Hinnom tombs, a silver amuletcontaining the earliest known biblical text (Num. 6:24–26) wasfound. Evidence of the Babylonian destruction was found inexcavations of the Jewish Quarter and the City of David. A group ofbullae (fired clay impressions) was found with the name of “Gemariahben-Shaphan,” probably the scribe mentioned in Jer. 36.

FromPersian to Roman Rule

Afterthe Persian conquest of Babylon (539 BC), CyrusII allowed theJews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. Judah became thePersian province Yehud, and Jerusalem was the administrative center.Nehemiah was appointed governor of Judea by Artaxerxes in 445 BC.Nehemiah undertook a hasty rebuilding project against the wishes ofthe local population (Neh. 2:19; 4:7). The rebuilt city wasconstricted to the area of the Eastern Hill, comprising some thirtyacres, with a population of about forty-five hundred.

Alexanderthe Great captured Jerusalem in 332 BC. This victory marked the endof Persian rule. Following Alexander’s death, his empire wasdivided between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria.PtolemyI captured Jerusalem in 320 BC, but the Jerusalem templecontinued to be the center of local Jewish life and administration.The Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies and annexed Palestine around201–198 BC. The city and the temple were repaired during theirreign. During this period the Jews were struggling with theacceptance of Hellenistic culture. The high priest Jason favoredHellenization and transformed Jerusalem into a Hellenistic polis (aGreek city-state). Jerusalem became known as Antiochia, and the cityexpanded to the eastern slope of the Western Hill (Upper City). Jasonbuilt a gymnasium (1Macc. 1:11–15; 2Macc. 4:9–17).The Maccabeans revolted, and AntiochusIV destroyed the walls ofJerusalem, erected a fortress (the Akra), and desecrated the temple.Judas Maccabeus liberated Jerusalem in 164 BC, and the temple waspurified and rededicated (1Macc. 4:36–55). Hasmonean rulelasted from 142 to 63 BC. Hasmonean Jerusalem occupied the Westernand Eastern Hills. The Upper City was joined to the Temple Mount byan arched bridge across the Tyropoeon Valley (Wilson’s Arch). Afortress (the Baris) was built northwest of the temple. The Romansconquered Jerusalem in 63 BC under the rule of Pompey and endedHasmonean rule.

TheTime of Jesus and the First Century AD

Jerusalemduring the time of Jesus was largely the product of Herod the Great’spolicies and building programs. Herod was a Roman vassal and broughtHellenistic culture to the city. He built an amphitheater and atheater. Jerusalem became a city divided between the wealthy of theUpper City and the poor in the Lower City. Herodian Jerusalem’spopulation was about forty thousand, and the city extended over 230acres, not including suburbs on the Mount of Olives and west of thecity. Herod’s main building activity was the complex on theTemple Mount. Herod built a massive podium over the northern summitof the Eastern Hill. This podium stood forty-five meters high abovethe bottom of the Kidron Valley. This formed a rectangular platformfor the temple that measured 144,000 square meters. Most of theretaining walls are visible today, and the best-known section is theWestern Wall. To the south of the Temple Mount complex was the RoyalStoa, and on the northwest corner was the Antonia Fortress.

Archaeologicalresearch has uncovered several components and features of NTJerusalem. The temple rituals needed large amounts of water, andHerod built an elaborate water-delivery and storage system. Remainsof both subterranean and surface aqueducts are found from theBethlehem region to Jerusalem. Large water-storage pools are stillvisible today, such as the Serpent’s Pool in the Hinnom Valley,the Pool of the Towers of Amygdalon, the Sheep Pools, the Pool ofIsrael, as well as several other unnamed reservoirs and water-storagefeatures. Several segments of the city fortification walls were foundin various archaeological excavations, as well as remains of theAntonia Fortress and Herod’s Upper Palace with its three towersand adjacent Agora. Jewish Quarter excavations have revealed severalpalatial homes with various luxury goods, evidence of the wealth ofthe Upper City. These homes contained a courtyard surrounded by roomsand reception halls; several had private ritual baths. Excavations ofthe southern wall have revealed components of the Temple Mountcomplex, most notably the southern monumental stairway with theritual-bath complex building and the two entrances that led up to theTemple Mount. Several tombs and cemeteries have also been excavatedin the environs around the city.

Mostof Jesus’ ministry was spent in Galilee. He would have come toJerusalem at least three times each year to attend the majorfestivals. Of the Gospel writers, Luke most often referred toJerusalem and the temple as he framed his account of the deeds andteachings of Jesus. Although the events of Passion Week took place inJerusalem and its environs, the Gospels emphasize the events andteachings of Jesus, not the geography.

Theearly church started in Jerusalem with the events of Pentecost.Jerusalem was the origin and the center of the early church under theleadership of James. It seemed to serve as the center of theapostles’ authority, but the missionary zeal soon shifted theministry and focus of the church to the eastern Mediterranean.Jerusalem was destroyed in AD 70 by the Romans under the direction ofTitus. Jerusalem has been a central place for the Christian faith,whose followers acknowledge the city as the place of the death andresurrection of Jesus. Jerusalem played a major role throughouthistory and has always been a center of pilgrimage for Christians.

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).

The Hebrew word tarshishrefers to a precious stone (NIV: “topaz”; Exod. 28:20;Ezek. 1:16). The name of the stone probably comes from its place oforigin (see #4, below). “Tarshish” is also used as aname. (1)Ason of Javan, grandson of Japheth, and great-grandson of Noah (Gen.10:4; 1Chron. 1:7). (2)Ason of Bilhan, grandson of Jediael, and great-grandson of Benjamin(1Chron. 7:10). (3)Oneof the seven princes of Persia and Media who had access to thepresence of King Ahasuerus and advised him to put away Queen Vashtibecause of her refusal to obey the king’s command to appearbefore the banquet (Esther 1:14).

(4)Aplace frequently mentioned in the OT. Solomon engaged in trade withTarshish (1Kings 10:22 NRSV, NASB; 2Chron. 9:21 NRSV,NASB), and it is described as a source of precious metals such asgold and silver (Jer. 10:9; Ezek. 27:12). Its location is unknown,but it is associated with islands (Ps. 72:10 NRSV, NASB) and withJonah’s flight by ship from Joppa on the Mediterranean (Jon.1:3). Both Tartessus in southwest Spain and the island of Sardiniahave been suggested as possible sites.

Thephrase “ships of Tarshish” (Ps. 48:7; Isa. 23:1) mayrefer to a fleet originating from Tar-shish or more generally to atype of seaworthy merchant vessel. It is thus sometimes translated bythe NIV as “trading ships” (1Kings 10:22; 22:48).

Palestine has arid and wet Mediterranean climate zones and asteppe zone. Its two seasons are dry/summer and wet/winter (cf. Gen.8:22). In summer the weather is remarkably stable, and the incomingair from the northwest typically is rather arid. With no cloud covermost days, there is, on average, zero rainfall from June throughSeptember—the background for the miracle of 1Sam.12:16–18 (cf. Prov. 26:1).

Inwinter the weather is variable, with rains and thunderstorms arrivingfrom the Mediterranean Sea, generally from the southwest. The rainsusually fall in concentrated amounts over a few hours. Rainfalldiminishes overall from north to south and west to east, thoughvarying elevations create deviations from the overall pattern. Annualrainfall varies significantly (from twelve to forty inches), fallingalmost entirely between November and April. Dew is a significantsource of water in the region, especially in summer, sometimesconstituting 25percent of the annual moisture.

Table11. Average Low–High Temperatures (°F)

1.Tel Aviv (sea level)

January– 34-74

Februrary– 36-80

March– 37-87

April– 42-95

May– 47-99

June– 55-97

July– 60-92

August– 62-91

September– 59-92

October– 50-92

November– 43-87

December– 36-79

II.Jerusalem (2,500 ft.)

January– 39-53

February– 40-56

March– 43-61

April– 49-70

May– 54-77

June– 59-82

July– 63-84

August– 63-84

September– 61-82

October– 57-77

November– 49-66

December– 42-57

III.Tiberias (-650 ft.)

January– 45-61

February– 48-66

March– 54-73

April– 55-77

May– 59-86

June– 68-93

July– 70-95

August– 72-97

September– 68-93

October– 61-88

November– 55-75

December– 50-68

IV.Jericho (-840 ft.)

January– 49-65

February– 49-64

March– 56-73

April– 62-82

May– 68-90

June– 74-98

July– 80-100

August– 80-100

September– 74-95

October– 70-89

November– 64-81

December– 54-69

Apartfrom thunderstorms early in the rainy season, such as occur on theSea of Galilee (cf. Luke 8:23), a high-pressure zone can form overIraq during the wet season, forcing hot, dusty, and sometimesprolonged east winds into Palestine; these are called qadim in theBible (Exod. 10:13; Ps. 48:7; Jon. 4:8). In the transitional periodsbetween the two seasons, the sirocco (Arab. hamsin), may occur, inwhich an east wind from the Arabian desert sweeps up from the southand across Palestine toward a low-pressure zone over Egypt or Libya,causing humidity to drop as low as 10percent and thetemperature to rise as much as 22°F. This can last days or weeks,with sweltering effects (cf. Ezek. 17:10; Hos. 13:15; Luke 12:55).Such storms are often used as a backdrop to highlight the weaknessand transience of earthly existence (Isa. 27:8; Hos. 12:1; James1:11).

Whilevarious weather conditions are described throughout the Bible (rain,snow, storms, lightning, thunder, wind, etc.), Jesus refersspecifically to weather prediction in Matt. 16:2–3, where heaccuses the Pharisees of being able to predict the weather but notable to discern the signs of the times.

Geography

Whereasthe principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancientworld different cultures used a variety of orientations as theysought to describe their relationship to their geographicalenvironment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by thesunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word usedto refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be usedto simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of thespeaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the termsmizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh(“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derivefrom the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt theprimary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the NileRiver.

Theancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions,which persists to the present, and the terminology related to thesewas influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israelnorth is often designated by “left”; south could bedesignated by “right,” and west by “behind.”In addition, directions could be specified by reference togeographical features found in those directions. North could bespecified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of anorthern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for theregion south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”),since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Asidefrom their purely geographical significance, the directions also cameto bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted inassigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger ofreading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguityinherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also havealternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolicmeaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So,for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significantsymbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear tohave been extended to encompass the term when used to designate awesterly direction.

Eastand west.Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in theexpulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower ofBabel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promisedland, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration andreturning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in theeast” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrewexpression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “inancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity inthe use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is thesource of influences on the people that lead them astray. Followingthe exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple fromthe east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east”is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connectionwith distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significanceassigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being theantithesis of east. The distance between east and west was usedpoetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

Northand south.North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is thedirection from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel(Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is saidto come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of Godapproaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impendingjudgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology theabode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on MountZaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amountto a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast tothis, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon andthus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting theCanaanite pantheon.

Aswith west, there is little symbolic significance associated with thedirection south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination withother directions.

Thefour directions.The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are usedtogether to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well astheir being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3;Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together toexpress the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else todescribe something that is all-encompassing (1Chron. 9:24).